ORIGINAL PAPER
Figure from article: Functional nanoemulsions...
 
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Camel colostrum and milk are rich sources of bioactive proteins with diverse biological and antimicrobial properties. The purpose of this study was to develop nanoemulsions from enzymatically hydrolysed whey protein concentrates (WPCs) derived from camel colostrum and milk and to evaluate their antifungal activity against multiple Candida species. WPCs were obtained by acid precipitation and hydrolysed using Alcalase and pepsin. The hydrolysates were subsequently incorporated into nanoemulsions using highshear homogenisation followed by ultrasonication. The degree of hydrolysis was determined using the O-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) method. Antifungal activity was assessed using broth microdilution and biofilm inhibition assays against several Candida strains. Nanoemulsions derived from colostrum WPC hydrolysates had significantly lower minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and stronger inhibition of biofilm formation compared to formulations prepared from camel milk WPC (P < 0.05). The enhanced antifungal activity was attributed to a higher degree of protein hydrolysis, the generation of low molecular-weight peptides, and improved nanoscale dispersion of active components. These findings demonstrate that nanoemulsions formulated based on camel colostrum whey protein hydrolysates represent promising natural antifungal systems and indicate the potential of camel dairy proteins as functional bioactive ingredients for applications related to animal health and sustainable utilisation of dairy resources.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia for supporting this project.
FUNDING
The authors declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Grant No: KFU261454).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES (45)
1.
Abdelazez A., Abd-elmotaal H., Abady G., 2024. Exploring the potential of camel milk as a functional food: Physicochemical characteristics, bioactive components, innovative therapeutic applications, and development opportunities analysis. Food Mater. Res. 4, https://doi.org/10.48130/fmr-0....
 
2.
Adjonu R., Doran G., Torley P., Agboola S., 2014. Whey protein peptides as components of nanoemulsions: A review of emulsifying and biological functionalities. J. Food Eng. 122, 15–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoo....
 
3.
Ali M.A., Kamal M.M., Rahman M.H., Siddiqui M.N., Haque M.A., Saha K.K., Rahman M.A., 2022. Functional dairy products as a source of bioactive peptides and probiotics: Current trends and future prospectives. J. Food Sci. Technol. 59, 1263–1279, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197....
 
4.
Alkhulaifi M.M., Alosaimi M.M., Khan M.S., Tabrez S., Shaik G.M., Alokail M.S., Hassan M.A., Awadalla M.E., Husain F.M., 2024. Assessment of broad-spectrum antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and anticancer potential of lactoferrin extracted from camel milk. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 196, 1464–1480, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010....
 
5.
Alnadari F., Ibeogu I.H., Shoura H.E., Wang R., Yar M.S., Chen C., Nasiru M.M., 2025. Immunomodulatory potential of bovine colostrum: A holistic perspective on health, disease resistance, and aging. Anim. Adv. 2, https://doi.org/10.48130/anima....
 
6.
Alsaloom A.N., 2024. Antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities of camel whey protein hydrolysates. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 33, 4517–4524, https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes....
 
7.
Anaya K., 2026. Biologically active compounds of bovine colostrum. In: R. Mehra, R.P.F. Guiné, H.S. Buttar, S. Kumar (Editors). Bovine Colostrum as a Nutraceutical. Elsevier, pp. 41–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0....
 
8.
Arain M.A., Khaskheli G.B., Shah A.H., Marghazani I.B., Barham G.S., Shah Q.A., Khand F.M., Buzdar J.A., Soomro F., Fazlani S.A., 2023. Nutritional significance and promising therapeutic/medicinal application of camel milk as a functional food in human and animals: A comprehensive review. Anim. Biotechnol. 34, 1988–2005, https://doi.org/10.1080/104953....
 
9.
Bolotnikov G., Gruber D., Walter J.-C., Kühnel K., Kemal T., Rodriguez A., Preising N., Ständker L., Firacative C., Spellerberg B., 2026. Phage display-derived peptides have neutralizing activities against biofilm formation by Candida albicans, Candidozyma auris and Candida parapsilosis. Pharmaceuticals 19, 286, https://doi.org/10.3390/ph1902....
 
10.
Chaudhary R., Thakur Z., 2025. The hidden threat: Unveiling the rise of antifungal drug resistance. Microb. Pathog. 108068, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micp....
 
11.
Clément M., Tremblay J., Lange M., Thibodeau J., Belhumeur P., 2007. Whey-derived free fatty acids suppress the germination of Candida albicans in vitro. FEMS Yeast Res. 7, 276−285, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1567....
 
12.
Clément M., Tremblay J., Lange M., Thibodeau J., Belhumeur P., 2008. Purification and identification of bovine cheese whey fatty acids exhibiting in vitro antifungal activity. J. Dairy Sci. 91, 2535–2544, https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.20....
 
13.
Dadashi S., Naderi F., Salami M., Buttar H.S., 2026. Bovine colostrum and whey-based bioactive peptides and their role in human health and disease. In: R. Mehra, R.P.F. Guiné, H.S. Buttar, S. Kumar (Editors). Bovine Colostrum as a Nutraceutical. Elsevier, pp. 63–83, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0....
 
14.
Dyrda-Terniuk T., Pomastowski P., 2023. The multifaceted roles of bovine lactoferrin: Molecular structure, isolation methods, analytical characteristics, and biological properties. J. Agric. Food Chem. 71, 20500−20531, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.ja....
 
15.
Eker F., Akdaşçi E., Duman H., Yalçıntaş Y.M., Canbolat A.A., Kalkan A.E., Karav S., Šamec D., 2024. Antimicrobial properties of colostrum and milk. Antibiotics 13, 251, https://doi.org/10.3390/antibi....
 
16.
Freitas C.G., Felipe M.S., 2023. Candida albicans and antifungal peptides. Infect. Dis. Ther. 12, 2631–2648, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40121....
 
17.
Hasi S., 2025. My journey to camel science and camel industry. J. Camel Pract. Res. 32, 179−186, https://doi.org/10.5958/2277-8....
 
18.
He J.-L., Liu B.-H., Zhang H.-L., Xu D., Shi B.-M., Zhang Y.-H., 2023. Improvement of hydrolysis efficiency and interfacial properties of zein using nanoemulsions prepared by a low energy emulsification method. Food Biosci. 54, 102922, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio....
 
19.
Hizlisoy H., Dishan A., Bekdik I.K., Barel M., Koskeroglu K., Ozkaya Y., Aslan O., Yilmaz O.T., 2025. Candida albicans in the oral cavities of pets: Biofilm formation, putative virulence, antifungal resistance profiles and classification of the isolates. Int. Microbiol. 28, 423–435, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123....
 
20.
Jayathilaka E.T., Nikapitiya C., De Zoysa M., Whang I., 2022. Antimicrobial peptide octominin-encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles enhanced antifungal and antibacterial activities. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 23, 15882, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23....
 
21.
Kumar D., Chatli M.K., Singh R., Mehta N., Kumar P., 2016. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of camel milk casein hydrolysates and its fractions. Small Rumin. Res. 139, 20–25, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smal....
 
22.
Kuniyal A., Ranjan R., Chaudhary S.S., 2024. Functional and therapeutic properties of non-bovine milk other than camel. In: Y. Kumar, S. Phand, S. Priyadarsini, S. Das (Editors). Recent Advances in Processing of Non-bovine Milk and Milk by-products. National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad and ICAR-National Research Centre on Camel. Bikaner (India). Chapter 7, 61–69.
 
23.
Li Y., Ma Q., Li M., Liu W., Liu Y., Wang M., Wang C., Khan M.Z., 2025. Non-bovine milk as functional foods with focus on their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactivities. Antioxidants 14, 801, https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox....
 
24.
Loushigam G.L., Jaiswal R., Pipliyal S., Badgujar P.C., 2026. Safety, efficacy, and regulatory considerations of bovine colostrum and its products. In: R. Mehra, R.P.F. Guiné, H.S. Buttar, S. Kumar (Editors). Bovine Colostrum as a Nutraceutical. Elsevier, pp. 393−419, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0....
 
25.
Madhavi B.G.K., Obeme-Nmom J.I., Udenigwe C.C., Sun X., 2025. Recent advances in the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive peptides. In: X.-h. Sun, Ch. Udenigwe (Editors). Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals and Bioactive Compounds. Elsevier, pp. 149−176, https://doi.org/10.1201/978100....
 
26.
Marena G.D., Ruiz-Gaitán A., Garcia-Bustos V., et al., 2023. Nanoemulsion increases the antifungal activity of amphotericin B against four Candida auris clades: In vitro and in vivo assays. Microorganisms 11, 1626, https://doi.org/10.3390/microo....
 
27.
Minj S., Anand S., 2020. Whey proteins and its derivatives: Bioactivity, functionality, and current applications. Dairy 1, 233–258, https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy1....
 
28.
Mohamed S.S., Emam M.A., 2017. Antifungal and hepatoprotective effects of lactoferrin purified from camel milk against Candida albicans: In vitro and in vivo studies. Int. J. Biosci. 11, 1, https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/1....
 
29.
Mudgil P., AlMazroui M., Redha A.A., Kilari B.P., Srikumar S., Maqsood S., 2022. Cow and camel milk-derived whey and casein protein hydrolysates demonstrated effective antifungal properties against selected Candida species. J. Dairy Sci. 105, 1878–1888, https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.20....
 
30.
Murtaza M.A., Irfan S., Hafiz I., Ranjha M.M.A., Rahaman A., Murtaza M.S., Ibrahim S.A., Siddiqui S.A., 2022. Conventional and novel technologies in the production of dairy bioactive peptides. Front. Nutr. 9, 780151, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2....
 
31.
Muthukumaran M.S., Mudgil P., Baba W.N., Ayoub M.A., Maqsood S., 2023. A comprehensive review on health benefits, nutritional composition and processed products of camel milk. Food Rev. Int. 39, 3080–3116, https://doi.org/10.1080/875591....
 
32.
Niaz B., Saeed F., Ahmed A., Imran M., Maan A.A., Khan M.K.I., Tufail T., Anjum F.M., Hussain S., Suleria H.A.R., 2019. Lactoferrin (LF): A natural antimicrobial protein. Int. J. Food Prop. 22, 1626–1641, https://doi.org/10.1080/109429....
 
33.
Nielsen P., Petersen D., Dambmann C., 2001. Improved method for determining food protein degree of hydrolysis. J. Food Sci. 66, 642–646, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365....
 
34.
Poonia A., Shiva, 2022. Bioactive compounds, nutritional profile and health benefits of colostrum: A review. Food Prod. Process. Nutr. 4, 26, https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014....
 
35.
Quintieri L., Luparelli A., Caputo L., Schirinzi W., De Bellis F., Smiriglia L., Monaci L., 2025. Unraveling the biological properties of whey peptides and their role as emerging therapeutics in immune tolerance. Nutrients 17, 938, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu1706....
 
36.
Rasheed Z., 2017. Medicinal values of bioactive constituents of camel milk: A concise report. Int. J. Health Sci. 11, 5, 1–2.
 
37.
Schille T.B., Sprague J.L., Naglik J.R., Brunke S., Hube B., 2025. Commensalism and pathogenesis of Candida albicans at the mucosal interface. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 23, 525–540, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579....
 
38.
Shukla P., Verma P., Tiwari V., Tripathi A., Pandey S., Dwivedi A., Mishra A., 2025. Surfactant mediated dispersion and stabilization of nano-emulsion droplets enhance antimicrobial activity against multidrug resistant bacteria. J. Mol. Liq. 426, 127300, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.moll....
 
39.
Soutelino M.E.M., Silva A.C. de O., Rocha R. da S., 2024. Natural antimicrobials in dairy products: Benefits, challenges, and future trends. Antibiotics 13, 415, https://doi.org/10.3390/antibi....
 
40.
Usha B., Aparna H., 2026. Buffalo colostrum peptides as natural antimicrobials targeting menaquinone by inducing oxidative stress pathways in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Int. J. Pept. Res. Ther. 32, 16, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10989....
 
41.
Utama G.L., Utba F., Sari V.F., Nurmilah S., Cahyana Y., Balia R.L., 2024. Exploring protein derivative profiles in cheese whey through native Candida tropicalis fermentation. Int. J. Food Prop. 27, 367–380, https://doi.org/10.1080/109429....
 
42.
van Rhijn N., Rhodes J., 2025. Evolution of antifungal resistance in the environment. Nat. Microbiol. 10, 1804-1815, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564....
 
43.
Wang S., Wang X., Luo Y., Liang Y., 2025. A comprehensive review of conventional and stimuli-responsive delivery systems for bioactive peptides: From food to biomedical applications. Adv. Compos. Hybrid Mater. 8, 12, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114....
 
44.
Yang T., Liu C., Zheng Y., Liu T.C., Li K., Liu J., Liu Y., Zhou P., 2023. Effect of WPI/Tween 80 mixed emulsifiers on physicochemical stability of ginsenosides nanoemulsions. Food Biosci. 53, 102519, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio....
 
45.
Yu P., Satyaraj E., 2025. Effect of bovine colostrum on canine immune health. Animals 15, 185, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani150....
 
ISSN:1230-1388
Journals System - logo
Scroll to top